Many ESL learners are at risk in terms of literacy, poor academic achievement and dropout. In Alberta, high school ESL students have overall non-completion rates between 61 and 74 per cent, compared to 30 per cent for all Alberta high school students (Alberta Education, 1992; Derwing, DeCorby, Ichikawa & Jamieson, 1999; Watt & Roessingh, 1994, 2001)². At least 10 per cent of ESL students are pushed out of school by the provincially mandated age cap (Derwing et al, 2000). ESL students in grades 3, 6, and 9 are 16 to 28 percentage points behind other students in language arts (Latimer, 2000).

In addition to linguistic needs, ESL learners of an immigrant background face diverse acculturative, psychological and socioeconomic challenges in their daily lives. Figure 3 and Table 6 illustrate the interlinked and complex needs of ESL students with respect to social services, health, education and justice, and the contexts in which these needs and issues arise, namely the home environment, the school environment and the community environment (see Ngo & Schliefer, 2005).

Figure 3: An Interactive model of needs of immigrant children and youth

Table 6: Summary of major issues facing immigrant children and youth

	SOCIAL SERVICES	HEALTH	EDUCATION	JUSTICE
INDIVIDUAL ISSUES	Cultural adjustment Social support & belonging Cultural identity Sexual identity Gender roles Internalized racism Employment	Nutrition Communicable diseases Sexual and reproductive health Chronic health conditions Mental health problems Pre-migration and migration trauma	Unfamiliarity with schooling in Canada Appropriate assessments ESL instruction Support in content classrooms Support for students with special needs Support for heritage languages Transitions	Criminal gangs and violence Substance abuse Prostitution Issues in youth justice process
HOME ENVIRONMENT	Basic needs Employment Language and adult literacy Family literacy Social networks and support Incongruent rates of acculturation Family violence Civic participation
SCHOOL COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENT	Access to systemic, culturally competent support Parental involvement Belonging and participation in school activities Interaction with peers and school staff Racism and discrimination
COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENT	Belonging and community participation Racism and discrimination Socioeconomic conditions Negative influences

² McCormick (1989) estimated in a US study that the lifetime personal income lost as a result of dropping out ranges from $20,000 to $200,000 per individual, and that the annual loss of income resulting from high school dropout is estimated to be more than $238 billion, with lost tax revenues of $68 billion. The author further asserted that the initial cost of programs focused on keeping economically disadvantaged youth in school is well worth the investment, yielding a long term saving of $4.75 for every dollar spent.